Do Research Interviews Online
Engage human to human for meaningful exchanges
In January I laid out the calendar for the first six months of 2025. Take a look at the topics to come!
Online Interviews are the focus for May
In this newsletter I offer an overview and suggest open-access resources. You’ll receive another issue with more about selecting technologies, preparing for and conducting online interviews. While journalists and writers can find useful tips in these posts, some issues mentioned are relevant specifically to research interviews. When we interview participants for the purpose of data collection, we must observe ethical protocols designed to protect human participants. To learn more details about methodologies and ethics, see Doing Qualitative Research Online (2022) and use the 25% discount code UK25BOOKS on the ebooks.com page.
Why conduct interviews online?
I became interested in the potential for doing interviews online when I was working on my dissertation. I knew I wanted to talk with people in different countries, but had no travel funding. I was an earlier adopter for webinars, so I thought why can’t I use this technology? It went so well that I started studying the ethical and methodological issues, and have published numerous books about online research. I’m currently updating models and materials for a new multimedia research guide - and subscribers will be the first to know how to access this new open-access publication.
We learn from each other by asking questions. When prompted, we might respond by sharing what is on our minds at this moment or by calling on memories of the past. Online interviews allow us to make these rich connections with people near and far. Even when conducting research in our own communities, online interviews are convenient for participants, and allow us to easily record the interaction for review and analysis.
When I use the term “online” here, I am referring to any information and communication technology (ICT) that allows people to convey questions and share answers. Let’s consider two broad ICT categories: text-based technologies that function primarily in writing, and multimedia technologies that allow for verbal, visual, as well as written exchanges.
These technologies can be used synchronously, asynchronously, and what I call near-synchronous. With synchronous interviews we want to learn what the participant thinks or feels, perceives or remembers in the moment. If we want the participant to reflect on the questions, find or create examples, we allow them time to respond. In near-synchronous interviews we have a slow but steady exchange; in asynchronous interviews we allow a longer time period between question and response. I present these on a continuum because these are not hard-and-fast distinctions. Still, when you think about your own communication styles, you know that a videochat with cameras is different from the back-and-forth flow of text messages which are different from the send-and-wait exchanges carried out by email. There is no right or wrong approach – choices depend on the nature of the study, time zone differences, and preference of the participants.
How can you use ICTs for robust interviews?
Questions or prompts can be conveyed in words, images or media, and answers can be given in words, nonverbal expressions, images or media. What kind(s) of interactions do we want, to collect what type of data? There are lots of considerations when planning and designing online interviews!
I’ll state now that I am not including Generative AI on this list because I am focusing on interviews between a human researcher and a human participant. I’ll leave discussion of robots interviewing robots to others!
What builds credibility with interviewees?
If we want interviewees to be responsive, we must make an effort to build trust and rapport. Think of this as a process that begins when we recruit someone and negotiate their consent to be a part of our research or other project. Anticipate concerns participants might have, such as:
Are you really a researcher (or journalist) or is this a scam?
Why should I trust you with my story?
Why should I trust you with private information - my identity?
Why should I trust that you will be respectful of experiences I might not have shared publicly?
What will happen to the notes, recordings, images that you collect? Who will see them?
Where will findings be published or presented?
Depending on the nature of the study and participants, answers can be laid out in a simple one-page document, blog, or website. Introduce yourself in a friendly way and explain the study in plain language. Emphasize ways that what you learn from interviews will be used to improve policies, practices, or attitudes. Link back to your institution, publications, or anything else that verifies your research bonifides. If someone else refers the participant, as them to make an introduction as a way to confirm that you are who you say you are.
If your participants don’t like to read detailed information, consider recording a short video or create a visual infographic. Keep in mind that just as you can search online to learn more about participants, they can search for you! Update your profiles and as possible, clean up any potentially embarrassing posts or images.
Think about the degree(s) of structure that fits your project.
All interview researchers need to decide on whether to prioritize flexibility or consistency. Do you want participants to have the ability to tell you what they think is important to share in a conversational interview? Or do you want consistency across the group of participants, with all responding to some or all of the same questions?
Structured Interviews
Structured and survey interviews occupy one end of the continuum with what is essentially a live version of the questionnaire. In the most structured interviews, the same questions are posed in the same order and the researcher maintains a consistent, neutral approach to questioning. Options may be limited to multiple choice or yes/no questions.
In structured interviews you may also pose open-ended questions to elicit short narrative answers. In this type of interview respondents do not have the option to redirect questions or elaborate on responses. Structured interviews can serve as an initial stage to help the researcher generate items for exploration using less structured questioning.
Online interviewers consider:
What technology will allow the you to either to read verbatim the questions and response options or to cut and paste prepared questions into a text-based ICT? Which will be preferable to participants?
In a synchronous interview, what will make it easy for participants to see or hear the questions and respond? Is there a reason to conduct it synchronously (given the need to coordinate schedules to do so) or can you securely email or post the questions for asynchronous response?
Semistructured Interviews
Semistructured interviews allow you to balance the organization and framework of the structured approach with the spontaneity and flexibility of the unstructured interview. The researcher prepares questions and/or discussion topics in advance and generates follow-up questions during the interview. In more structured standardized open-ended interviews, interviewers may ask the same open-ended questions in the same sequence but with varied follow-up questions and probes. They also may ask a consistent set of questions but vary the sequence based on responses. In more flexible guided open-ended interviews, researchers create themes or develop an “interview guide” of topics to discuss but do not develop precise wording or sequence in advance.
Online interviewers consider:
What technology allows you to deliver the main questions so participants can easily read, see or hear them? What technology allows for timely delivery of follow-up and probing questions?
To what extent are synchronous spoken or written exchanges used for all or some of the interview? Are both researcher and participant frequent text-chat communicators who are able to think and type quickly enough to make a less-structured interview work smoothly? Or might the researcher find that trying to think of questions or follow-ups and then type them is too slow a process?
If visuals will be used to prompt discussion, will they be used in the same way across all interviews (more structured) or will different images or visual exchanges be used in different ways for each respective interview (less structured)?
If a virtual environment or game is used as a setting, will time be needed to navigate to different settings or show various features, possibly creating a gap between question and response? Would this type of interview be best conducted as a semi- or unstructured interview?
Unstructured Interviews
At the other end of the continuum, unstructured interviews are used to collect data through what is essentially a conversation about some aspect of the research problem. You might begin with an open-ended invitation to “tell me about how…” or “tell me about why…” Additional questions, prompts, or follow-up probes emerge from the context and events occurring in the circumstance of the interview.
Online interviewers consider:
What ICT allows for natural dialogue, such as video or web conferencing, so the conversation can easily flow and change course? If you want to conduct an asynchronous, unstructured interview, how will you retain focus on the research purpose between communications?
Should you plan for multiple styles and interactions?
Varied styles of questioning can be used in the same study. You might decide to use a structured approach to solicit background information, a semi-structured approach for the main interview, and allow time for unstructured conversation to capture perspectives or unexpected experiences not covered in the planned interview.
Some research designs aim for one in-depth interview with participants. However, when we are dealing with sensitive issues this approach is not likely to succeed. There are a number of ways to approach this kind of study that make use of communications available online. For example:
Schedule several shorter interviews and scaffold your questions so that you can establish background and context before delving into sensitive topics.
Use asynchronous tools before and after a synchronous interview. Have an email or text messaging exchange to get acquainted and reassure participant prior to the interview and to follow-up after the interview.
Clarify expectations. If you are using videoconferencing, let the participant know whether it is acceptable to turn the camera off, or use virtual backgrounds. If they are unfamiliar with the platform or tool, arrange a trial run before the interview. Again, use every interaction to build rapport and trust.
Encourage the participant to find a space where they feel comfortable and safe to connect with the interview.
Closing thoughts
An unanswered question for online researchers relates to the potential impact of a “cyberspace effect.” Do online exchanges encourage people to be more open and willing to share honestly, or does it make them more secretive and protective of privacy? Do they provide different kinds of responses than they might in an in-person face-to-face interview? Is this difference advantageous or a limitation given a specific research problem? Researchers choosing to interview online will need to consider these questions in the context of their own studies, given the topics under discussion in the interview and the nature of participants’ online communication experience.
Learn more from open-access articles:
Khan, T. H., & MacEachen, E. (2022). An Alternative Method of Interviewing: Critical Reflections on Videoconference Interviews for Qualitative Data Collection. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221090063
Abstract excerpt. Qualitative research is an increasingly popular research approach for tackling the evolving complexity of social issues. With this rise in use, methods of qualitative data collection are becoming highly diverse, moving away from conventional approaches and welcoming more innovative and creative methods of data collection in a quest to produce critically and theoretically engaged new knowledge. Although traditional face-to-face interviews remain a compelling and popular means, modern innovative technology-based interviewing, such as videoconference interviews, can play a pivotal role in qualitative research.
Lindsay, S. (2022). A Comparative Analysis of Data Quality in Online Zoom Versus Phone Interviews: An Example of Youth With and Without Disabilities. SAGE Open, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221140098
Abstract excerpt. Qualitative researchers are increasingly using online data collection methods, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. I compared the data quality (i.e., interview duration, average number of themes and sub-themes, and inaudible words) of 34 interviews (29 conducted by Zoom (16 with camera on, 13 camera off) and 5 conducted by phone) drawn from a study focusing on youth’s coping experiences during the pandemic.
Lobe, B., Morgan, D. L., & Hoffman, K. (2022). A Systematic Comparison of In-Person and Video-Based Online Interviewing. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221127068
Abstract excerpt. Due to the increasing popularity of online qualitative interviewing methods, we provide a systematically organized evaluation of their advantages and disadvantages in comparison to traditional in-person interviews. In particular, we describe how individual interviews, dyadic interviews, and focus groups operate in both face-to-face and videoconferencing modes. This produces five different areas for comparison: logistics and budget, ethics, recruitment, research design, and interviewing and moderating. We conclude each section with set of recommendations, and conclude with directions for future research in online interviewing.
Opara, V., Spangsdorf, S., & Ryan, M. K. (2023). Reflecting on the use of Google Docs for online interviews: Innovation in qualitative data collection. Qualitative Research, 23(3), 561-578. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687941211045192
Abstract excerpt. Google Docs is a widely used online word processing software. Despite its broad popularity in business and education, Google Docs is under-utilised as a tool to facilitate qualitative interviews within research. In this article, we reflect on our experiences as two PhDs using Google Docs to conduct synchronous, online, written interviews.
Wakelin, K. J., McAra-Couper, J., & Fleming, T. (2024). Using an Online Platform for Conducting Face-To-Face Interviews. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 23. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069241234183
Abstract excerpt. Semi-structured interviews are useful for exploring participants experiences, understandings, and opinions on a particular issue. Traditionally, interviews have taken place in-person however, because of in-person restrictions with Covid-19, and with the changing landscape of online connection, opportunities have arisen for how to conduct interviews using an online platform. The purpose of this article is to highlight the first author’s experiences with using an online platform to conduct face-to-face interviews and the valuable contribution that online interviewing could offer as a valid research tool that differs to that of in-person face-to-face interviews.
Żadkowska, M., Dowgiałło, B., Gajewska, M., Herzberg-Kurasz, M., & Kostecka, M. (2022). The Sociological Confessional: A Reflexive Process in the Transformation From Face-To-Face to Online Interview. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221084785
Abstract excerpt. This aim of the article is to reflect on a new quality in the researcher-participant relationship caused by the transformation from a face-to-face to an online interview (on the Zoom platform during two first waves of the COVID-19 pandemic). It reports methodological learnings from autoethnography. The concept of an interaction order (Goffman) provides a theoretical lens through which the researcher-participant encounter is being analysed. The study is based on the reflections referring to 31 online in-depth interviews with women (mothers in an ‘empty nest’) conducted by a team of five female researchers.
This license enables reusers to copy and distribute the material in any medium or format in unadapted form only, for noncommercial purposes only, and only so long as attribution is given to the creator. In other words, you can use and share but you do NOT have my permission to upload the newsletter or art to AI.
Thanks to Beth Spencer for this badge, indicating that no AI tools were used to create this post!